Module 2: Beliefs Change

Behavior Analyst Certification Lath Registered Beliefs Technician™ (RBT®) Task List second Ed.

C-03 Utilize contingencies of reinforcement (e.g., conditioned/unconditioned reinforcement, continuous/intermittent schedules)

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Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment

In Module 1, we reviewed that consequences are stimulus changes or environmental atmospheric condition that occur immediately after a behavior. Two types of consequences are reinforcement and punishment. As ane of the most important principles of beliefs analysis, the procedure of reinforcement entails a consequence that increases the future likelihood of the behavior it follows. Such behavior change occurs over time following immediate reinforcement. Paraprofessionals who empathise the principles of reinforcement can easily and efficiently teach their clients new skills. Conversely, the procedure of punishment entails a consequence that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior it follows. Although we will briefly cover the process of penalization afterwards in this module, the focus of this module will be reinforcement as it is integral to all behavior analytic teaching strategies.

Positive and Negative Consequences

When referring to consequences, positive and negative are used to qualify the type of reinforcement or punishment. Positive, meaning the add-on of a stimulus following the target beliefs, and negative, significant the removal of a stimulus following the target beliefs. Positive and negative do not refer to a upshot being "good" or "bad", instead, positive and negative should be thought of every bit they are in mathematical equations: the addition or subtraction of a stimulus (Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1: Four Types of Consequences

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is the process that occurs when a desirable stimulus is added following the behavior, thereby increasing that behavior. For case, James says, "please" when requesting an item followed by his instructor providing a sticker.If James continues to say "delight" when requesting an item, positive reinforcement has occurred.Any behavior tin be reinforced, therefore both desirable behavior, as well as undesirable behavior, may be reinforced. If behavior is increasing or maintaining, then reinforcement is occurring in relation to the particular behavior.In the example higher up, saying "delight" was a skill that was positively reinforced by the teacher. Still, a client may also larn to engage in challenging behavior, such every bit aggression in the same style. For example, if James bites his teacher and his instructor then presents preferred items, perchance in an effort to "calm him down", and his biting beliefs increases over time, challenging behavior tin be positively reinforced. Therefore, in the moment it may make the biting behavior cease, however in this example, the behavior increased over fourth dimension, indicating that positive reinforcement occurred, and a challenging behavior had adult. As one can run into, this is how undesirable behavior may exist inadvertently reinforced, causing a need for treatment in the future. Therefore, knowledge regarding how beliefs works tin not simply assist with the treatment of behavioral issues simply also help with the prevention of undesirable behavior from being established in the beginning identify.

Negative Reinforcement

When a stimulus is removed following a response and in turn increases the future likelihood of the behavior, the process of negative reinforcement has occurred.For example, Sally has broccoli (a non-preferred food) on her plate. Sally cries. Her mom removes the broccoli from her plate. In the future, if Sally cries more oftentimes when broccoli or other non-preferred foods are presented, her crying behavior was negatively reinforced. Negative reinforcement is typically associated with an undesirable stimulus being present before the behavior occurs (ancestor) and the behavior increases due to the removal of the undesirable stimulus every bit a effect to the behavior. Other examples of negative reinforcement may be pressing the snooze push button on an alarm clock, rolling downwards a window in a hot machine, or doing chores following a parent nagging. The time to come likelihood of these behaviors increases with the removal of a stimulus the person finds undesirable (e.grand. the audio of the alert, heat, parent nagging).

Reinforcers

A consequence stimulus that increases the target behavior it follows is referred to as a reinforcer. There are two categories of reinforcers: unconditioned and conditioned. An unconditioned reinforcer is not learned during an organism'southward lifetime (e.g., nutrient water, warmth) and may likewise exist referred to as an unlearned or principal reinforcer. A conditioned reinforcer is caused during an organism's lifetime (e.g., stickers, tokens, coin) and may also be referred to every bit a learned or secondary reinforcer. Neutral stimuli can become conditioned as a reinforcer via pairing with an unconditioned reinforcer.

Examples of Positive Reinforcers

Tangibles Engaging in activities without others may serve as tangible reinforcement. Whatsoever particular tin be a tangible reinforcer even if information technology is not used as designed or intended. Playing with a toy automobile or putting together a puzzle are examples of tangible activities. Edible reinforcers are examples of tangible items that tin office as reinforcers. Preferred edibles can be benign because they are primary reinforcers, can exist delivered immediately and are suitable for clients who take minimal activity preferences. The use of edible reinforcement requires consent from parents/guardians. Consideration should exist given to client allergies and dietary restrictions and only the healthiest options and portions should be used. Excessive utilize of edibles may exist considered harmful. When using edible reinforcement, other items and/or praise should be paired to condition culling reinforcers. Social Positive Reinforcers When social attention increases desired behavior, it tin can be considered a reinforcer. Centre contact, proximity, direct physical or verbal contact with peers or adults could all be considered social positive reinforcers. Engaging in activities with others may also serve as social positive reinforcement. Board games, high fives, and conversation are all examples of social positive reinforcers. Automatic Positive Reinforcers (Sensory) Anything that tin can be used to stimulate the 5 senses (sight, smell, sense of taste, feeling, hearing) could exist considered reinforcement. The calorie-free produced by waving a glow wand, the sound of music produced by hitting the keys of a piano, and the scent from smelling a lavender satchel could all exist considered automatic positive or sensory reinforcers.

Video 1: An case of praise delivered as a reinforcer for correct responding

Video 2: An example of praise and a tangible delivered as a reinforcer for correct responding

Schedules of Reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement is a rule that describes the contingency by which behavior will produce reinforcement. It can be defined by the fourth dimension which passes (interval) or the number of responses emitted (ratio) since the previous reinforcement was delivered (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). Much of B.F. Skinner'due south early on work indicated that the rate of responding can be determined by the schedule of reinforcement in effect (e.thou., Ferster & Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1938) and identifying when to provide reinforcement for a target behavior is important to didactics skills to others. Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) In a CRF schedule, reinforcement is provided contingent on each occurrence of the target beliefs. The benefit of this schedule is that it produces a high rate of responding. It may, therefore, exist most benign when teaching new skills (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 305).

Case: Every time Julia turns the faucet on, h2o comes out and she fills her water bottle. Julia continues to plough the faucet on when she is thirsty to fill her water canteen.

Example: A client is learning to proceeds attention from others. Every fourth dimension the client says "Excuse me" attention is provided. This skill increases over fourth dimension.

Intermittent reinforcement (INT) Reinforcement is provided simply for some occurrences of the target behavior. Beneath are four types of bones intermittent schedules of reinforcement. Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement is provided subsequently the completion of a predetermined number of responses. Therefore, the quicker the completion of the ratio requirement, the sooner reinforcement is delivered (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 306). Enquiry has shown that the effects of this type of reinforcement are that it produces high rates of consistent responding followed by a post-reinforcement pause before responding is resumed once again. See effigy 2.2 for an analogy of the mail-reinforcement pause pattern during an FR schedule response blueprint. Please notation, a stock-still ratio of 1, or an FR1, is synonymous with CRF, as information technology ways that reinforcement is provided later every response. Whereas, an FR2 (delivery of reinforcement later every 2 responses) and higher denotes an INT schedule of reinforcement.

Example: After every 100 sales made, Hector receives an immediate notification e-mail from his visitor praising his hard work and a $500 bonus. Example: During a discrete trial training programme, a small-scale edible and praise are provided after every v correct responses. This would be an FR5 schedule of reinforcement.

Variable Ratio (VR). Reinforcement is provided afterwards a predetermined variable number of responses with a specified mean value (Catania, 1998). For example, a VR5 ways that reinforcement is provided an average of every five responses. Therefore, sometimes it is provided for ii responses, or 7 responses and then forth as long as the mean is equivalent to 5 responses. The furnishings of VR schedules are steady, quick rates of responding considering the private is unsure of exactly which response will produce reinforcement (Cooper Heron & Heward, p. 309).

Case: Every so ofttimes when Angela logs into her social media site, she receives a notification from a connection or likes to recent posts. As a outcome, this increases the frequency of logging into her social media business relationship. Instance: Throughout the day, a modest edible and praise are provided subsequently an boilerplate of every 4 advisable interactions a client engages in. This would exist an VR4 schedule of reinforcement.

Fixed Interval (FI). Reinforcement is provided for the outset response following a fixed duration of fourth dimension (Catania, 1998). Therefore, an FI 2-infinitesimal schedule, denotes reinforcement being provided for the showtime response emitted later ii minutes has elapsed. This schedule of reinforcement results in a post-reinforcement pause at the beginning of the interval, with responding accelerating towards the end of the interval (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 310-311), creating the scallop pattern shown in figure two.2.

Example: Oscar enters the wrong password into his secure lap top. A message pops up indicating that he can try to log-in once more in 3 minutes. His first correct log-in endeavor later on three minutes elapses is reinforced with access into his calculator. Instance: A kid requests to play a game and receives permission for the first request after thirty minutes has elapsed. This is considered an FI 30-minute schedule.

Variable Interval (VI). Reinforcement is provided for the first response afterward a mean duration of time (Catania, 1998). Therefore, a Vi 30-second schedule indicates that reinforcement is provided on average after the first response occurs each time 30 seconds elapses. And then, reinforcement may exist provided later ten seconds or twoscore seconds and then on, if the mean reinforcement equals thirty seconds. The use of this schedule may result in a abiding only low to moderate rate of responding. This rate of responding is sensitive to the average length of the interval. Therefore, the longer the interval is, the lower the response rate will be (Cooper, Heron & Heward, p. 312-313).

Example: A rat pressing a lever in an experimental chamber receives a pellet of nutrient from the dispenser for the first response that occurs afterwards an boilerplate of 1 infinitesimal. This is considered an Half dozen one-minute schedule. Instance: A child requests attending and receives attending for the showtime request after an boilerplate of five minutes has elapsed. This is considered an VI 5- minute schedule. pastedGraphic.png

Figure 2.two Reinforcement Schedule Response Pattern

Parameters of Reinforcement

Reinforcement is most constructive when it meets the following parameters (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, p. 286-289). Im mediate reinforcement Immediate reinforcement strengthens the beliefs that it immediately follows. If reinforcement does not occur immediately after a behavior, other behaviors may occur during the delay between the target behavior and reinforcement. As a result, some other behavior may inadvertently be reinforced instead of the target behavior. For example, if a paraprofessional asks a client to touch their head, then the paraprofessional turns around to get a tangible reinforcer in the cupboard, and finally provides the reinforcer as the client is scratching their abdomen, the paraprofessional has likely reinforced abdomen scratching rather than head touching. Sufficient magnitude Magnitude is defined as "the duration of time for access to the reinforcer, the number of reinforcers per unit of time (reinforcer charge per unit), or the intensity of the reinforcer." (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, p. 286). Therefore, if a client is provided with one small marshmallow they may be likely to perform a unproblematic addition trouble for such a reinforcer. However, if you provide one pocket-sized marshmallow for the completion of an entire math worksheet, the magnitude may not be sufficient to act as a reinforcer. In this example, several marshmallows, a larger marshmallow or an entirely different reinforcer may be necessary to increase the likelihood of completing an entire worksheet. Therefore, a reinforcer for one behavior or for a certain number of responses may not exist a reinforcer for a different behavior or when a greater response try is required (e.g., engaging in a behavior or for a longer duration, an increase in the concatenation of behaviors or repeated instances of a specific beliefs) require a reinforcer with a greater magnitude than behavior requiring less response endeavor. Preferred Reinforcement is constructive if the reinforcer is preferred by the individual. Preference is person-specific, meaning that what one person prefers some other person may not. Preference for specific items may also wax and wane over fourth dimension, over a few days or fifty-fifty within a session (Logan & Gast, 2001). For case, identifying preferred stimuli and using them to teach new skills makes information technology more likely that the stimuli may function as a reinforcer and increase the occurrence of the skill over time. However, it is important to annotation that only because a stimulus is preferred does not automatically mean the stimulus is as well a reinforcer. If, and only if, information technology increases responding contingent on the target behavior may it be called an actual reinforcer (Green et al., 1998, 1991; Logan et al., 2001; & Leatherby et al., 1992). In Module 6, we will review preference cess methods to use with your clients for this purpose. Variable The value of a reinforcer can exist momentarily altered. Satiation decreases the value of a reinforcer considering a client has received too frequent admission to the reinforcer. For example, if a client is toilet training and an electronic device (e.m., Kindle, iPad) has been identified equally a reinforcer for remaining seated on the toilet, but the client has gratuitous admission to this device exterior of training sessions, the client may non engage in the desired behavior of sitting on the toilet. In this state of affairs, the value of the reinforcer is low, given that he receives admission to the device throughout the day. While satiation decreases the value of a reinforcer, impecuniousness increases the value of a reinforcer because the client has minimal or no access to the reinforcer for a period of fourth dimension. In the previous case, the client was satiated from free access to the electronic device throughout the 24-hour interval resulting in a lack of engagement in the desired behavior to earn electronics. If that same client only received admission to the device when they were seated on the toilet, the customer may be more than likely to engage in the desired behavior to gain admission to this isolated reinforcer, given that this is the merely way that access to electronics is provided. Presenting a diverseness of reinforcers can prevent satiation. Providing access to novel reinforcers may also help control for the effects of satiation (Logan et al., 2001). Consistently implemented Earlier in this module, you learned that the schedule of reinforcement tin affect the frequency and accurateness of responding. When reinforcement is provided consistently post-obit the target beliefs, responding increases and lasting behavior change tin occur.

Punishment

Equally a reminder, penalty is a outcome that immediately follows a behavior and decreases the hereafter likelihood of the behavior. As with reinforcement, there are two types of penalty: positive and negative. When considering the employ of punishment, the client's rights to a safe environment, effective treatment, employ of least restrictive interventions, and adherence to legal policies should be evaluated before its implementation. Further review of the ethical considerations surrounding punishment will be discussed in Module vii. Punishment should not be confused with extinction.

Extinction involves withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced beliefs and will exist discussed farther in Module iv when we cover differential reinforcement. The Behavior Annotator Certification Board® (BACB™) has developed The Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (2016) that outlines a process for the employ of least restrictive procedures. Specifically, Code 4.08: Considerations Regarding Punishment Procedures details the ethical responsibilities required of Behavior Analysts for its use. In Module vii, nosotros will review the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code requirements for RBTs. Yet, information technology is important to annotation that the field of ABA utilizes the to the lowest degree restrictive treatment approach, meaning that reinforcement procedures are generally the first grade of treatment unless prophylactic is a business organisation. This is an effective and humane treatment approach. Therefore, the punishment procedures nosotros will briefly review in this section should not be withheld from a client whose behavior presents serious harm to themselves or others. In addition, being that our clients take the right to effective treatment, if reinforcement alone has not effectively treated astringent challenging behaviors, penalisation procedures should be used in conjunction with reinforcement procedures to effectively treat the behavioral issue. One of the reasons for this is considering punishment more often than not teaches an individual which behaviors not to engage in, therefore reinforcement is necessary to teach them which behaviors to engage in to access reinforcers appropriately.

Positive Penalization

When an undesirable stimulus is presented following the target behavior and decreases the hereafter likelihood of the behavior, positive punishment has occurred.For example, while in the grocery store, a child repeatedly requests a candy bar and the parent sternly screams "No!". If the child's requests for a candy bar in the grocery store decrease in the futurity, positive punishment as occurred. In this example, the parent screaming "No" served as the add-on of a stimulus that decreased the child continually requesting the candy bar in the grocery store.

Negative Penalization

Negative punishment is the removal of a desirable stimulus contingent on a target beliefs that decreases the future likelihood of the beliefs. For case, Cheri but received her driver's license. She was caught speeding and was given a ticket. As a result, of the ticket, her parents took her driving privileges away for one month. If Cheri'southward speeding beliefs decreases, then the removal of driving privileges decreased the future likelihood of speeding, indicating that the procedure of negative punishment has occurred.

Punishers

Like reinforcers, in that location are two types of punishers: unconditioned punishers and conditioned punishers. An unconditioned punisher serves as punishment without existence learned during one's lifetime.Other terms for unconditioned punishers are primary punishers or unlearned punishers. Pain, extremely loud noises, and extreme temperatures could all be considered unconditioned punishers. Conditioned punishers are stimuli that are learned to have punishing properties via pairing. Neutral stimuli are paired with unconditioned punishers and thereby became conditioned punishers. Other terms for unconditioned punishers are primary punishers or unlearned punishers. For example, the sight of blood may go a conditioned punisher for some individuals, given that information technology is often paired with pain or other unconditioned punishers. Some other mutual example of a conditioned punisher is a reprimand such as "You lot better stop that" or "No, don't do that!" and other forms of social disapproval (due east.g., shaking ane's head contingent on another person engaging in an undesirable behavior). In fact, a reprimand is called a generalized conditioned punisher considering information technology has been paired with various unconditioned and conditioned punishers in the past. Similar reinforcers, what is a conditioned punisher for 1 individual may non be a conditioned punisher for another individual, and what is punishing to one behavior may non be punishing to other behaviors in an private'southward repertoire. For example, lemon juice was shown to be an effective punisher in previous studies (e.grand., Cipani, Brendlinger, McDowell, & Usher, 1991; Gross, Wright, & Drabman, 1981), however, other individuals may detect lemon juice desirable and it tin therefore function as a neutral stimulus or even a reinforcer for that individual'southward behavior.

Mutual Types of Punishment Procedures

Although there are several methods that can exist considered penalty interventions, some of the mutual interventions are described beneath:

Positive Punishment Procedures

Response Blocking and Redirection In this procedure, the paraprofessional physically prevents the behavior from occurring and neutrally redirects to more than appropriate behavior. Response blocking can be used solitary; all the same, it is recommended that it be paired with redirection whenever possible, to decrease the likelihood of collateral behaviors (e.g., assailment) due to blocking alone (east.g., Hagopian & Adelinis, 2001). In addition, in Module iii, we will hash out how to use response blocking equally part of an errorless didactics procedure.

Overcorrection

In this procedure, the client is either required to repair or restore the environment to its original condition and then engage in behavior that will ameliorate the environment (restitutional overcorrection) or engage in the desired behavior repetitively after the occurrence of undesirable behavior (positive practice overcorrection). For example, if a client engages in belongings destruction in their classroom, they may be required to clean not just what they destroyed, but additional areas within their classroom.

Reprimands

Reprimands contingent on a response may have a punishing effect on the behavior it immediately follows. For example, in the previous positive penalization example, the parent screaming "No!" in response to the kid'south request, decreased the frequency of that behavior, thus making the reprimand a punisher.

Negative Punishment Procedures

Fourth dimension-out In general, time out is a flow of time when reinforcement or earning reinforcement is made unavailable contingent on undesirable behavior. For instance, if a child throws a preferred toy and his toys are removed and made unavailable for 5 minutes contingent on each example of throwing this would be an example of time out. Likewise, if a child hits his female parent and is placed on a chair without admission to social attention or toys for 3 minutes this is too an example of time out from reinforcement. Response cost Response toll entails a loss of a specific amount of reinforcement contingent on an undesirable behavior resulting in a decrease in the undesirable target beliefs. An instance of this procedure is a child earning 30 minutes of playground time and losing 10 minutes of playground time contingent on each instance of hitting one of his friends.

Conclusion

The use of reinforcement is integral for effective and lasting behavior change. Furthermore, although there are ethical considerations for the use of punishment, information technology may also be necessary for effective beliefs change. Throughout the balance of this curriculum, nosotros will review how the effective employ of reinforcement and other ABA strategies can be used to increase socially significant behavior. Links to Quizzes for Module ii: Quiz 1 Quiz 2

References

Behavior Analyst Certification Lath (2016). Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts. Retrieved from www.bacb.com.

Catania A.C. (1998)Learning [fourth] ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Cipani, E., Brendlinger, J., McDowell, L., & Conductor, S. (1991). Continuous vs. intermittent punishment: A example report.Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities,3(2), 147-156. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007).

Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice Hall.

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Light-green, C. W., Reid, H. D., Canipe, V. S., and Gardner, S. M. (1991). A comprehensive evaluation of reinforcer identification processes for persons with profound multiple handicaps. Journal of Applied Behavior Assay, (4) 537–552.

Green, C. Due west., Reid, D. H., White, L. G., Halford, R. C., Brittain, D. P., and Gardner, South. G. (1988). Identifying reinforcers for persons with profound handicaps: Staff stance versus systematic assessment of preferences. Journal of Practical Behavior Analysis, (21) 31–43.

Gross, A. M., Wright, B., & Drabman, R. Southward. (1981). The empirical selection of a punisher for a retarded child's self-injurious beliefs: a example study.Child Behavior Therapy,2(3), 59-65.

Hagopian, L. P., & Adelinis, J. D. (2001). Response blocking with and without redirection for the treatment of pica.Periodical of Practical Beliefs Analysis,34(four), 527-530.

Logan Chiliad. R., Jacobs, H. A., Gast, D.Fifty., Smith P. D., Daniel J., & Rawls J., (2001). Preferences and Reinforcers for Students with Profound Multiple Disabilities: Tin We Identify them? Periodical of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, (2), 97. doi:10.1023/A:1016624923479

Logan K. R., & Gast, D. 50., (2001) Conducting Preference Assessments and Reinforcer Testing for Individuals With Profound Multiple Disabilities: Issues and Procedures.Exceptionality, nine (3) 123-134. DOI: 10.1207/S15327035EX0903_3

Leatherby, J. G., Gast, D. Fifty., Wolery, M., and Collins, B. C. (1992). Assessment of reinforcer preference in multi-handicapped students. Journal of Developmental Physical Disabilities 4: 15–36. Manske, M. (2012). Schedule of reinforcement.PNG. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/due west/index.php?championship=File:Schedule_of_reinforcement.png.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: an experimental assay. Appleton-Century. New York.